urge incontinence - uncontrolled contraction of the bladder results in leakage of urine before one reaches the bathroom
functional incontinence - incontinence not due to organic reasons; for instance, impaired mobility may prevent the client from reaching the bathroom in time.
Diagnosis of urinary incontinence
history and physical examination
urinalysis - tells whether blood or infection present
cystoscopy - tells whether abnormalities are present
post-void residual - measures amount of urine remaining in bladder after voiding
stress test - determines if urine leaks after bladder is stressed due to coughing, lifting etc.
Treatment
drug therapy
antispasmodics and anticholinergics - relax and increase capacity of bladder
Sleep apnea: intermittent periods of not breathing while asleep; usually due to problems with upper airway; can be treated with CPAP (continuous positive airway pressure) at bedtime
Sleep deprivation: decrease in the amount and quality of sleep
Somnambulism: sleepwalking, night terrors, or nightmares
Depression
secondary to disease process
can occur with any sleep disorder
General nursing interventions for promoting restorative sleep
Comfort measures
Medications: sedatives, hypnotics
Sleep routine
Encourage daytime activity
Eliminate naps
Relaxation techniques
Environmental control
Limit alcohol, caffeine, and nicotine in evening
Pain
Theories of pain
Specificity theory proposes that pain can be initiated only by painful stimuli.
Pattern theory - stimulus goes to receptors in the spinal cord, which signals the brain to perceive pain and muscles to respond.
Gate control theory - pain impulses can be altered or regulated by gating mechanisms along nerve pathways. This theory explains how past and present experiences can influence the perception of pain.
Variables influencing the perception of pain
Culture and social groups shape attitude towards pain
Religious beliefs regarding reasons for pain
Previous experience with pain
Age
Sex
Coping style
Family support
Types of pain
Acute - pain episode lasting up to 6 months
Chronic - pain lasting longer than 6 months. May be intermittent or constant.
Medical treatment
Pharmacologic intervention (discussed in Lesson 6: Pharmacological and Parenteral Therapies)
Nonpharmacologic intervention
acupuncture
oriental method: insert fine needles at specified body sites
unknown how acupuncture works physiologically
relaxation techniques - biofeedback, visualization, meditation and hypnosis, to help client control anxiety
electronic stimulation such as transcutaneous electric nerve stimulation (TENS) - electrodes applied over the painful area or along nerve pathway
distraction - focusing client's attention on something other than pain
massage - generalized cutaneous stimulation of the body. Makes the client more comfortable due to muscle relaxation
ice and heat therapies - effective in some circumstances. Ice may decrease prostaglandins which intensify the sensitivity of pain receptors
guided imagery - using one's imagination in a guided manner to achieve a specific positive effect
Nursing interventions in pain
assess pain using pain assessment scale
assess client's coping strategies and factors that produce ineffective coping
teach client appropriate strategies to deal with pain
Communication
Cross-cultural communication - guidelines
Findings of a lack of effective communication
efforts to change the subject - client may not understand what the nurse is saying
lack of questions - client may not understand what was said
nonverbal cues such as blank expression, lack of eye contact
Nursing interventions
use simple sentence structure and pantomime while talking
use visual aids
discuss one topic at a time
use any words you know in the client's language
ask among the client's family and friends if anyone could serve as interpreter
obtain phrase books or use flash cards
Cultural interpretations
silence
touch
eye contact
Client with hearing loss
Findings of hearing loss
speech deterioration
indifference
social withdrawal
suspicion
tendency to dominate conversation
Nursing interventions
speak slowly and distinctly; do not shout
face client directly
make sure your face is clearly visible
before the discussion, tell client the topic you are going to discuss
insure that client has access to hearing aid and that it is functional
Used as dried herbs in capsules or tablets, tinctures, teas, ointments
Use only products standardized with a specific amount of active ingredients
Some may interfere with medications
Chiropractic treatment
Effective by manipulating the musculosketal system
Manipulation to put the vertebrae in proper alignment
Acupuncture and acupressure
Based on belief that channels of energy are blocked causing diseases or discomfort
Acupuncture is primary treatment used by physicians of Chinese medicine
insert fine needles at specific points to open channels of energy (meridians)
used to decrease pain and to treat or prevent illness
Acupressure
uses gentle pressure at specific points
used for prevention and relief of muscle tension
Therapeutic massage
Manipulates the soft tissue of the body and assists with healing
Can be either relaxing or energizing
Is contraindicated for a client with phlebitis, thrombosis, or infectious skin diseases
Aromatherapy
Uses oils produced by plants for inhalation or topical application
Different scents are thought to produce different responses in the body
Reflexology applies pressure to specific areas of the feet thought to correspond with all the different parts of the body
Relaxation therapy
Rhythmic breathing
Progressive relaxation
Yoga
Treatment of the mind-body connection
Can tone the muscles that balance all parts of the body and control the emotions and mind through correct posture and breathing
All individuals require the same nutrients, but the amounts vary according to factors such as age, weight, activity level, and health state.
The energy value of foods is defined in calories; only proteins, fats and carbohydrates provide calories.
The average adult drinks 2 to 3 liters of water per day.
The normal thirst mechanism in the elderly may be diminished and they may need encouragement to drink sufficient water to prevent dehydration.
Discontinue ROM exercises at point of pain.
Use rubber suction tips on crutches and canes to prevent slipping.
Prevent deformities and complications such as contractures, thrombophlebitis, and pressure ulcers by turning and positioning the client in good alignment.
There should be at least two inches between axilla and top of arm piece of crutch to prevent pressure on the brachial plexus.
The majority of residents in nursing homes are incontinent.
Incontinence is not a normal sequela of aging.
Initiate pain relief before the pain becomes unbearable.
Essential amino acids cannot be synthesized. They must be ingested daily.
Weight is maintained when daily food intake equals energy expenditure.
Age affects daily requirements: young, old, pregnancy, lactation.
Weight loss is a long-term process and patients need long-term support.
Reconstructive surgery may be required after large amount of weight loss.
Support groups are available for patients losing weight.
Increased fiber in the diet may cause flatulence.
In constipation, increase fluid to 3000 cc/day (unless contraindicated).
Small frequent loose stools or seepage of stool are often indicative of a fecal impaction.
Use transparent drainage bag initially for assessment of stoma and drainage.
Avoid foods that cause odor, gas, diarrhea, or may block ileostomy.
Allow the client to rate his degree of pain and the degree of relief from pain relief measures.